Bibliography of American black duck (Anas rubripes) ecology and management

Migrations of the species in the area cited, feeding habits, available foods, and their utilization. Probably "through experimentation and management relatively unproductive stretches of marshland can be made to produce an abundance of desirable black duck foods." Addy, C. E. 1953. Fall migration of the black duck. 19:1-63. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Special Science Report Wildlife no. 19, Washington, D. C. USA. Abstract: Based on analysis of 17,518 shooting recoveries. Introduction discusses limitations on use and interpretation of banding recoveries. The body of the report details patterns of dispersal from important banding stations and summarizes records for states and regions. Time and extent of migration by various populations is dealt with. Migration patterns show considerable variation between banding stations and between regions. Usually there is a significant difference in pattern of dispersal from stations 50-200 miles apart. An important variable between banding stations is percentage of recoveries taken in vicinity of station. This varies from 0 to 80%. A high percentage of local recoveries usually is associated with habitats that serve as wintering grounds, or which are large enough that ducks need not be driven out early in season by shooting or weather. Data indicate that in northern states where wintering or more sedentary populations occur, bait trapping in late summer and fall will not properly sample both sedentary and migrant groups. Characteristics of migration through a major region, or along a particular route, cannot be determined from banding at any one point. Overall population movements can be determined only through analysis of records from a series of banding stations located from Canadian breeding grounds to southern wintering grounds. Based on analysis of 17,518 shooting recoveries. Introduction discusses limitations on use and interpretation of banding recoveries. The body of the report details patterns of dispersal from important banding stations and summarizes records for states and regions. Time and extent of migration by various populations is dealt with. Migration patterns show considerable variation between banding stations and between regions. Usually there is a significant difference in pattern of dispersal from stations 50-200 miles apart. An important variable between banding stations is percentage of recoveries taken in vicinity of station. This varies from 0 to 80%. A high percentage of local recoveries usually is associated with habitats that serve as wintering grounds, or which are large enough that ducks need not be driven out early in season by shooting or weather. Data indicate that in northern states where wintering or more sedentary populations occur, bait trapping in late summer and fall will not properly sample both sedentary and migrant groups. Characteristics of migration through a major region, or along a particular route, cannot be determined from banding at any one point. Overall population movements can be determined only through analysis of records from a series of banding stations located from Canadian breeding grounds to southern wintering grounds. Addy, C. E. 1968. Epilogue: black duck population management. Pages 183-189 in P. Barske editor. The black duck. evaluation, management, and research: A symposium. Atlantic Waterfowl Council and Wildlife Management Institute, Brew Printing. Albright, J. J. 1981. Behavioral and physiological responses of coastal-wintering black ducks (Anas rubripes) to changing weather in Maine. Thesis. University of Maine, Orono, ME USA. Albright, J. J., R. B. Owen, Jr., and P. O. Corr. 1983. The effects of winter weather on the behavior and energy reserves of black ducks in Maine. Transactions of the Northeast Section of the Wildlife Society 40:118–128. Alfano, K. 2006. "King" of ducks is losing ground. New York Conservationist 61:24-26. Allison, R. M. 1976. History of the black duck in Ontario. Ontario Field Biologist 30:27–35. Lasted updated: 7 August 2008. 2 Black Duck Joint Venture ABDU Bibliography, First Edition Allen, C. S. 1893. The nesting of the black duck on Plum Island. Auk 10:53–59. Summary: Narrative describing the natural history of black ducks nesting on Plum Island, MA. Anderson, D. R., K. P. Burnham, J. D. Nichols, and M. J. Conroy. 1987. The need for experiments to understand population dynamics of American black ducks. Wildlife Society Bulletin 15:282-284. Andrews, R. 1952. A study of waterfowl nesting on a lake Erie marsh. Master’s thesis, Ohio State University, Columbia, OH USA. Ankney, C. D., D. G. Dennis, and R. C. Bailey. 1987. Increasing mallards, decreasing American black ducks—no evidence for cause and effect: coincidence or cause and effect? Journal of Wildlife Management 51:523–529. Abstract: Hunter-kill data for each degree block in Ontario and Quebec for the years 1974-85 were analyzed to see how the number of American black duck (Anas rubripes) × mallard (A. platyrhynchos) hybrids in an area was related to the relative abundance of mallards and black ducks. We also related breeding-ground survey data about changes in numbers of breeding mallards and black ducks, from 1971 to 1985 in Ontario, to those about hybrid incidence in the hunter-kill data. A multiple regression showed that when black duck or mallard numbers were held constant, there was a positive correlation (P 0.01) between numbers of the other species and hybrid numbers. Between 1971 and 1985, the ratio of black ducks: mallards breeding in Ontario declined from about 1:2 to about 1:6 (P 0.001); the decline was greatest in areas that had the highest numbers of hybrids relative to the number of black ducks (P 0.001). We conclude that neither overhunting nor loss of breeding habitat explains this decline, particularly as mallard numbers have shown a compensatory increase. Rather, we suggest that increased mallards in an area cause a decline in black ducks through introgressive hybridization and/or competitive exclusion. Hunter-kill data for each degree block in Ontario and Quebec for the years 1974-85 were analyzed to see how the number of American black duck (Anas rubripes) × mallard (A. platyrhynchos) hybrids in an area was related to the relative abundance of mallards and black ducks. We also related breeding-ground survey data about changes in numbers of breeding mallards and black ducks, from 1971 to 1985 in Ontario, to those about hybrid incidence in the hunter-kill data. A multiple regression showed that when black duck or mallard numbers were held constant, there was a positive correlation (P 0.01) between numbers of the other species and hybrid numbers. Between 1971 and 1985, the ratio of black ducks: mallards breeding in Ontario declined from about 1:2 to about 1:6 (P 0.001); the decline was greatest in areas that had the highest numbers of hybrids relative to the number of black ducks (P 0.001). We conclude that neither overhunting nor loss of breeding habitat explains this decline, particularly as mallard numbers have shown a compensatory increase. Rather, we suggest that increased mallards in an area cause a decline in black ducks through introgressive hybridization and/or competitive exclusion. Ankney, C. D., D. G. Dennis, L. N. Wishard, and J. E. Seeb. 1986. Low genic variation between black ducks and mallards. Auk 103: 701–709. Abstract: We used allozyme electrophoresis to estimate the degree of genetic differentiation among allopatric and sympatric populations of American Black Ducks (Anas rubripes) and Mallards (A. platyrhynchos). Mallards were collected in California, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, and Ontario, and Black Ducks were collected in Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and Ontario. The mean genetic distances, D̄, between Black Duck populations (0.0007), between Mallard populations (0.0010), and between Mallard and Black Duck populations (0.0006) were virtually identical; there was as much genetic differentiation within the two species as there was between them. Such small genetic distances are characteristic of local populations of avian species in other orders, and are consistent with what is known about the lack of reproductive isolation between Black Ducks and Mallards. Although the two taxa are still somewhat split on an east-west basis, our genetic data do not support even subspecific status for the Black Duck. We used allozyme electrophoresis to estimate the degree of genetic differentiation among allopatric and sympatric populations of American Black Ducks (Anas rubripes) and Mallards (A. platyrhynchos). Mallards were collected in California, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, and Ontario, and Black Ducks were collected in Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and Ontario. The mean genetic distances, D̄, between Black Duck populations (0.0007), between Mallard populations (0.0010), and between Mallard and Black Duck populations (0.0006) were virtually identical; there was as much genetic differentiation within the two species as there was between them. Such small genetic distances are characteristic of local populations of avian species in other orders, and are consistent with what is known about the lack of reproductive isolation between Black Ducks and Mallards. Although the two taxa are still somewhat split on an east-west basis, our genetic data do not support even subspecific status for the Black Duck. Ankney, C. D., D. G. Dennis, and R. C. Bailey. 1989. Increasing mallards, decreasing black duck—no evidence for cause and effect: a reply. Journal of Wildlife Management 53:1061–1064. Lasted updated: 7 August 2008. 3 Black Duck Joint Venture ABDU Bibliography, First Edition Ashley, P. E., N. R. North, S. A. Petrie, and R. C. Bailey. 2006. Age determination of American black ducks in winter and spring. Wildlife Society Bulletin 34:14011410. Abstract: Age-specific studies pertaining to survival and productivity of American black ducks (Anas rubripes) are constrained by the fact that no technique has been developed to reliably determine age as second year or after second year from late winter to late spring. We developed a qualitative age-class scoring technique that can be readily used in the field. When tested on 5 independent observers, knownaged birds (n = 106) were correctly classified with 94-98% accuracy. To reduce subjectivity and provide an objective corroboration of age estimates, we also developed multivariate models from measurements of wing feather variables (weight and length of greater secondary covert 9, and width of tertial covert 5) that determined age with >= 90% accuracy (n = 255). There was >= 94% agreement between qualitative and quantitative age assignments of wild birds caught in spring (n = 172). The application of these age determination techniques should be useful in a host of life-history studies conducted on wintering, spring staging, and nesting grounds. Age-specific studies pertaining to survival and productivity of American black ducks (Anas rubripes) are constrained by the fact that no technique has been developed to reliably determine age as second year or after second year from late winter to late spring. We developed a qualitative age-class scoring technique that can be readily used in the field. When tested on 5 independent observers, knownaged birds (n = 106) were correctly classified with 94-98% accuracy. To reduce subjectivity and provide an objective corroboration of age estimates, we also developed multivariate models from measurements of wing feather variables (weight and length of greater secondary covert 9, and width of tertial covert 5) that determined age with >= 90% accuracy (n = 255). There was >= 94% agreement between qualitative and quantitative age assignments of wild birds caught in spring (n = 172). The application of these age determination techniques should be useful in a host of life-history studies conducted on wintering, spring staging, and nesting grounds. Ashley, P. E., S. A. Petrie, N. R. North, and R. C. Bailey. 2007. Tertial and upper wing covert molt in young American black ducks. Waterbirds 30:433-440. Avise, J. C., D. Ankney, and W. S. Nelson. 1990. Mitochondrial gene trees and the evolutionary relationship of mallard and black ducks. Evolution 44:1109-1119. Banks, R. C. 1985. American black duck record from Korea. Journal of Field Ornithology 56:277-277. Barboza, P. S., and D. G. Jorde. 1999. Digestive and metabolic responses to foraging risk in a dabbling duck. American Zoologist 39:70a–71a. Abstract: Feeding was restricted without limiting the quality and quantity of food for black ducks (Anas rubripes). Nine adult males were fed an extruded diet of two percent fat, 17% protein, and nine percent fiber. Ducks were caged indoors from September (12h light; 17-24°C) to measure balances over 14d when fed ad libitum each day (unfasted) and then fasted for 2d/wk (low-risk) or 4d/wk (high-risk). Birds held mass at 1089g, body water at 800g and dry matter intake at 604g/14d. Intakes increased by 40% (low-risk) and by 133% (high-risk) on feeding days but energy metabolizability (82% to 79%; P<0.01), and fiber digestibility (44% to 9%; P<0.05) were reduced. Fasting regimes were continued in individual outdoor pens for 9wk. Birds gained mass and body water as temperatures declined from 1421°C to -9-16°C. At week five, low-risk ducks were heavier (1372 vs. 1241g; P<0.05) and fatter (276 vs. 140g; P<0.001) than high-risk birds while body water (894g) and protein were similar between groups (222g). Ducks are unable to increase digestible intakes to compensate for lost foraging time in the fall when nutrient demands for tissue synthesis, thermoregulation, and activity are elevated. Feeding was restricted without limiting the quality and quantity of food for black ducks (Anas rubripes). Nine adult males were fed an extruded diet of two percent fat, 17% protein, and nine percent fiber. Ducks were caged indoors from September (12h light; 17-24°C) to measure balances over 14d when fed ad libitum each day (unfasted) and then fasted for 2d/wk (low-risk) or 4d/wk (high-risk). Birds held mass at 1089g, body water at 800g and dry matter intake at 604g/14d. Intakes increased by 40% (low-risk) and by 133% (high-risk) on feeding days but energy metabolizability (82% to 79%; P<0.01), and fiber digestibility (44% to 9%; P<0.05) were reduced. Fasting regimes were continued in individual outdoor pens for 9wk. Birds gained mass and body water as temperatures declined from 1421°C to -9-16°C. At week five, low-risk ducks were heavier (1372 vs. 1241g; P<0.05) and fatter (276 vs. 140g; P<0.001) than high-risk birds while body water (894g) and protein were similar between groups (222g). Ducks are unable to increase digestible intakes to compensate for lost foraging time in the fall when nutrient demands for tissue synthesis, thermoregulation, and activity are elevated. Barboza, P. S., and D. G. Jorde. 2001. Intermittent feeding in a migratory omnivore: Digestion and body composition of American black duck during autumn. Physiological and Biochemical Zoology 74:307-317. Abstract: Birds fast intermittently during weather disturbances and migration. We tested responses of black duck to lost feeding days during autumn mass gain. Nine adult males were fed a pelleted diet (1.5% fat, 15.8% protein, and 18.3% neutral detergent fiber) and caged indoors during September and October (12 h light; 17°-24°C) to measure balances over 14 days when fed ad lib. each day and fasted intermittently for two days wk~-1~ (short fast) or four days wk~-1~ (long fast). Body mass (1,081 g), body water content, and metabolizable intakes of energy and protein were maintained as daily intakes of dry matter increased to 1.65 (short fast) and 2.35 (long fast) times the unfasted level. Intermittent Birds fast intermittently during weather disturbances and migration. We tested responses of black duck to lost feeding days during autumn mass gain. Nine adult males were fed a pelleted diet (1.5% fat, 15.8% protein, and 18.3% neutral detergent fiber) and caged indoors during September and October (12 h light; 17°-24°C) to measure balances over 14 days when fed ad lib. each day and fasted intermittently for two days wk~-1~ (short fast) or four days wk~-1~ (long fast). Body mass (1,081 g), body water content, and metabolizable intakes of energy and protein were maintained as daily intakes of dry matter increased to 1.65 (short fast) and 2.35 (long fast) times the unfasted level. Intermittent Lasted updated: 7 August 2008. 4 Black Duck Joint Venture ABDU Bibliography, First Edition feeding reduced metabolizability of dry matter, energy, protein, and acid detergent fiber. Concentrations of Mn provided similar estimates of metabolizability to direct measures in unfasted birds but underestimated measures of birds on long fasts. Fasting regimes continued outdoors for nine weeks when temperatures declined to -9°C. Birds on short fasts were heavier (1,373 vs. 1,241 g) and fatter (159 vs. 58 g) than those on long fasts, while body water (894 g) and protein (316 g) were similar between groups after five weeks. Birds on long fasts subsequently gained mass when fed daily, but those on short fasts lost mass when fed each day. Omnivorous waterfowl combine ingestive and digestive flexibility with plasticity of body lipid to contend with uncertain food availability. Barboza, P. S., and D. G. Jorde. 2002. Intermittent fasting during winter and spring affects body composition and reproduction of a migratory duck. Journal of Comparative Physiology. B: Biochemical, Systemic, and Environmental Physiology 172:419-434. Barclay, J. 1970. Ecological aspects of defensive behavior in breeding mallards and black ducks. Ph.D. dissertation, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH USA. Barnes, G. G. 1988. Hybridization and salt tolerance in American black ducks and mallards. Thesis, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada. Barnes, G. G. 1989. Determination of mallard black duck hybrids from wing feathers. Journal of Wildlife Management 53:1061–1064. Abstract: I measured color pattens of the fifth secondary (S5) and the fifth greater secondary covert (GSC5) feathers on 24 American black ducks (Anas rubripes), 30 mallards (A. platyrhynchos), and 22 first filial (Fsub1/sub) mallard and black duck hybrids of known genetic origin. I used cluster analysis to group birds based on similiarity in length and area of the white and black portions of both feathers. Each grouping was compared to the known classification for each bird. A distinct color band on GSC5, ranging from white to dark brown, was found on 21 hybrids. The area of this band, regardless of its color, and the length of white along the distal side of the rachis on S5 produced significant separation among all groups (P 0.0001), regardless of sex and age. Using this criterion, only 1 of 22 hybrids was classified as a black duck and 1 of 30 mallards as a hybrid. The length of the white band on the fifth secondary was equally useful in separating all groups. The area of the band on GSC5 is similar to a qualitative criterion used to identify mallard and black duck hybrids. However, with qualitative techniques interobserver variability can introduce error. The quantitative technique I describe eliminates subjectivity. I measured color pattens of the fifth secondary (S5) and the fifth greater secondary covert (GSC5) feathers on 24 American black ducks (Anas rubripes), 30 mallards (A. platyrhynchos), and 22 first filial (Fsub1/sub) mallard and black duck hybrids of known genetic origin. I used cluster analysis to group birds based on similiarity in length and area of the white and black portions of both feathers. Each grouping was compared to the known classification for each bird. A distinct color band on GSC5, ranging from white to dark brown, was found on 21 hybrids. The area of this band, regardless of its color, and the length of white along the distal side of the rachis on S5 produced significant separation among all groups (P 0.0001), regardless of sex and age. Using this criterion, only 1 of 22 hybrids was classified as a black duck and 1 of 30 mallards as a hybrid. The length of the white band on the fifth secondary was equally useful in separating all groups. The area of the band on GSC5 is similar to a qualitative criterion used to identify mallard and black duck hybrids. However, with qualitative techniques interobserver variability can introduce error. The quantitative technique I describe eliminates subjectivity. Barnes, G. G., and T.D.Nudds. 1991. Salt tolerance in American black ducks, mallards, and their F1-hybrids. The Auk 108:89-98. Abstract: We performed experiments on pure, wild-strain Mallards (Anas platyrynchos), American Black Ducks (A. rubripes), and first filial (F1) Mallard-Black Duck hybrids to investigate whether duckling survival and growth varied with salinity, and whether hybrids acquired salt tolerance. Ducklings were assigned to treatments in a 4 × 3 factorial experiment that involved a salinity gradient (0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5% NaCl) and duckling age (7, 14, 21 days). An additional experiment subjected ducklings to 3% NaCl at 48 h post-hatch. Black Duck ducklings had higher survival and growth rates than did Mallards with salt concentration increasing up to 1.5%. Hybrids were more similar to Black Ducks than to Mallards in that regard. Salinities 2% were uniformly fatal to all 48-h-old ducklings. Salt glands obtained from fully grown individuals from each treatment were heaviest in Black Ducks and hybrids, and glands increased in size with increasing age and salinity. Salt glands hypertrophied to a maximum size at 1% NaCl, which indicates that even Black Duck ducklings possessed salt glands capable of osmoregulation only at low levels of salinity. Interspecific differences with respect to salt We performed experiments on pure, wild-strain Mallards (Anas platyrynchos), American Black Ducks (A. rubripes), and first filial (F1) Mallard-Black Duck hybrids to investigate whether duckling survival and growth varied with salinity, and whether hybrids acquired salt tolerance. Ducklings were assigned to treatments in a 4 × 3 factorial experiment that involved a salinity gradient (0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5% NaCl) and duckling age (7, 14, 21 days). An additional experiment subjected ducklings to 3% NaCl at 48 h post-hatch. Black Duck ducklings had higher survival and growth rates than did Mallards with salt concentration increasing up to 1.5%. Hybrids were more similar to Black Ducks than to Mallards in that regard. Salinities 2% were uniformly fatal to all 48-h-old ducklings. Salt glands obtained from fully grown individuals from each treatment were heaviest in Black Ducks and hybrids, and glands increased in size with increasing age and salinity. Salt glands hypertrophied to a maximum size at 1% NaCl, which indicates that even Black Duck ducklings possessed salt glands capable of osmoregulation only at low levels of salinity. Interspecific differences with respect to salt Lasted updated: 7 August 2008. 5 Black Duck Joint Venture ABDU Bibliography, First Edition tolerance are probably insufficient to serve as a postmating reproductive isolating mechanism between these species in estuarine habitats. Barske, P., editor. 1968. The black duck: Evaluation, management and research: A symposium. Atlantic Waterfowl Council and Wildlife Management Institute, Brew Printing, Stratford, CT USA. Bartlett, C. O. 1987. Black duck populations in Prince Edward Island. Pages 7–15 in A. J. Erskine, editor. Waterfowl breeding population surveys, Atlantic Provinces. Canadian Wildlife Service Occasional Papers No. 60. Beaudette, F. R. 1941. Sarcosporidiosis in a black duck. Journal of the American Veterinarian Medical Association 90:52–53. Bélanger, L., A. Reed, and J. DesGranges. 1998. Reproductive variables of American black ducks along the St. Lawrence estuary, 1963-1991. Canadian Journal of Zoology 76:1165-1173. Abstract: The authors examined data from different surveys conducted 1963 to 1991 in the Baie de l'Isle Verte National Wildlife Area and the surrounding offshore islands, a coastal segment of the St. Lawrence estuary in Quebec. They summarize the data regarding various aspects of nesting ecology of the American black duck. Mean laying date, average clutch size, and apparent nesting success did not differ among years. Black ducks nested earlier on islands, but mean clutch size and nesting success on islands did not differ from those on the mainland. Nesting success of ducks nesting in woodlots, peat bogs, and shrubland and in mixed stands of trees or bushes or of herbaceous plants and shrubs was up to three times higher than at other sites. The authors examined data from different surveys conducted 1963 to 1991 in the Baie de l'Isle Verte National Wildlife Area and the surrounding offshore islands, a coastal segment of the St. Lawrence estuary in Quebec. They summarize the data regarding various aspects of nesting ecology of the American black duck. Mean laying date, average clutch size, and apparent nesting success did not differ among years. Black ducks nested earlier on islands, but mean clutch size and nesting success on islands did not differ from those on the mainland. Nesting success of ducks nesting in woodlots, peat bogs, and shrubland and in mixed stands of trees or bushes or of herbaceous plants and shrubs was up to three times higher than at other sites. Bélanger, L., and D. Lehoux. 1994. Use of a tidal salt-marsh and coastal impoundments by sympatric breeding and staging American black ducks, Anas rubripes, and mallards, A. platyrynchos. Canadian Field Naturalist 108:311-317. Bélanger, L., S. tremblay, and R. Couture. 1988. Bill morphology in Americna black ducks, Anas rubripes, and mallards, A. platyrhynchos. Canadian Field-Naturalist 102:720–722. Bellrose, F. C., editor. 1976. Ducks, geese and swans of North America. Wildlife Management Institute and Illinois Natural History Survey. Stackpole Books, Harrisburg, PA USA. Bellrose, F. C., and R. D. Crompton. 1970. Migrational behavior of mallards and black ducks as determined from banding. Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin 30:167–234. Bendell, B. E., and D. K. McNicol. 1995. The diet of insectivorous ducklings and the acidification of small Ontario lakes. Canadian Journal of Zoology 73:2044–2051. Lasted updated: 7 August 2008. 6 Black Duck Joint Venture ABDU Bibliography, First Edition Bennett, G. F., V. D. Stotts, and M. C. Bateman. 1991. Blood parasites of black ducks and other anatids from Labrador and insular Newfoundland. Canadian Journal of Zoology 69:1405–1407. Benson, D., and D. D. Foley. 1962. Hatching dates of waterfowl in New York. New York Fish and Game Journal 9:73–92. Abstract: Hatching dates were calculated for nearly 1,900 waterfowl broods observed while less than 3 weeks old. For the principal species, the hatching peaks were found to be: black duck, mid-May through early June; mallard, late May through mid-June; wood duck, mid-May through late June; and bluewinged teal, early June. Within these ranges, hatching dates in a given year tended to be earliest in the lower Hudson Valley, followed by Long Island, the Erie-Ontario Lowland, the middle Hudson Valley, the Southern Tier, and the central Adirondacks in that order. There was considerable overlap, however. Little difference was noted from year to year for the same species in the same area. Hatching dates were calculated for nearly 1,900 waterfowl broods observed while less than 3 weeks old. For the principal species, the hatching peaks were found to be: black duck, mid-May through early June; mallard, late May through mid-June; wood duck, mid-May through late June; and bluewinged teal, early June. Within these ranges, hatching dates in a given year tended to be earliest in the lower Hudson Valley, followed by Long Island, the Erie-Ontario Lowland, the middle Hudson Valley, the Southern Tier, and the central Adirondacks in that order. There was considerable overlap, however. Little difference was noted from year to year for the same species in the same area. Benson, D. 1966. What’s happening to black ducks? Conservationist 21:14–15. Abstract: Despite shortened season and reduced bag limits, black duck populations continue to decrease. The decline may be caused by pesticides, pollution, lead poisoning, and habitat reduction. Despite shortened season and reduced bag limits, black duck populations continue to decrease. The decline may be caused by pesticides, pollution, lead poisoning, and habitat reduction. Bent, A. C. 1923. Life histories of North American wildfowl. Part 1. U.S. National Museum Bulletin 126. Beyer, W. N., J. Spann, and D. Day. 1999. Metal and sediment ingestion by dabbling ducks. Total Environ 231:235-239. Abstract: The chemical analysis of intestinal digesta from hunter-killed carcasses or of wildlife scat is a promising means of estimating the exposure of wildlife to those environmental contaminants that, like lead, are poorly absorbed in the digestive tract. When evaluating contaminants at a site, biologists may find the results of this non-destructive approach more straightforward to interpret in terms of exposure to wildlife than would be analyses of soils, sediments, water, or wildlife tissues. To illustrate the approach, we collected digesta from 47 waterfowl shot by hunters at Prime Hook National Wildlife Refuge, in Delaware, USA. The waterfowl digesta contained an average of approximately 2.4% sediment, estimated from the Al concentrations in the digesta, a marker for sediment. Al concentrations were significantly correlated with concentrations of Cr (Spearman's rank correlation coefficient, r=0.57), V(r=0.70), Ni (r=0.31), and Pb (r=0.55), and we concluded that these metals were ingested mainly with sediment. American widgeon (Anas americana) ingested sediment at a rate of about four times that of three other species of dabbling ducks (Anas crecca, A. acuta, A. rubripes) and had several times the exposure to the sediment-associated metals. The digesta of one American black duck contained a high concentration of lead (70 mg/kg. dry wt.), presumably from lead shot, but none of the other samples had notably elevated metal concentrations. We suggest that scat and digesta be analyzed more widely by biologists and resource managers seeking a simple, inexpensive assessment of contaminants in local wildlife habitat. The chemical analysis of intestinal digesta from hunter-killed carcasses or of wildlife scat is a promising means of estimating the exposure of wildlife to those environmental contaminants that, like lead, are poorly absorbed in the digestive tract. When evaluating contaminants at a site, biologists may find the results of this non-destructive approach more straightforward to interpret in terms of exposure to wildlife than would be analyses of soils, sediments, water, or wildlife tissues. To illustrate the approach, we collected digesta from 47 waterfowl shot by hunters at Prime Hook National Wildlife Refuge, in Delaware, USA. The waterfowl digesta contained an average of approximately 2.4% sediment, estimated from the Al concentrations in the digesta, a marker for sediment. Al concentrations were significantly correlated with concentrations of Cr (Spearman's rank correlation coefficient, r=0.57), V(r=0.70), Ni (r=0.31), and Pb (r=0.55), and we concluded that these metals were ingested mainly with sediment. American widgeon (Anas americana) ingested sediment at a rate of about four times that of three other species of dabbling ducks (Anas crecca, A. acuta, A. rubripes) and had several times the exposure to the sediment-associated metals. The digesta of one American black duck contained a high concentration of lead (70 mg/kg. dry wt.), presumably from lead shot, but none of the other samples had notably elevated metal concentrations. We suggest that scat and digesta be analyzed more widely by biologists and resource managers seeking a simple, inexpensive assessment of contaminants in local wildlife habitat. Blandin, W. W. 1982. Population characteristics and simulation modelling of black ducks. Ph.D., Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts USA. Abstract: Study was designed to investigate the population dynamics of black ducks, particularly as they relate to harvest, to provide information of management importance, and to identify research needs. Population parameters were estimated using data from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service banding and recovery files and Waterfowl Harvest Surveys. Study was designed to investigate the population dynamics of black ducks, particularly as they relate to harvest, to provide information of management importance, and to identify research needs. Population parameters were estimated using data from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service banding and recovery files and Waterfowl Harvest Surveys. Lasted updated: 7 August 2008. 7 Black Duck Joint Venture ABDU Bibliography, First Edition Bordage, D., and A. Reed. 1996. American black duck. Pages 274–277 in The breeding birds of Quebec: atlas of the breeding birds of Southern Quebec. Association quebecoise des groupes d’ornithologues, Provicne of Quebec Society for the Protection of Birds, Canadian Wildlife Service, Environment Canada, Quebec Region, Montreal. * Bordage, D., and N. Plante. 1997. Tendance des effectifs nicheurs de Canard noir et de Canard colvert au Quebec meridonal 1985–1945. Serie de rapports techniqes n ۫ 200, Service canadien de la faune, region du Quebec, Environment Canada, SaiteFoy, Quebec. Bowman, T. D. 1987. Ecology of male black ducks molting in Labrador. Master’s Thesis, University of Maine, Orono, ME USA. Bowman, T. D., and J. R. Longcore. 1989. Survival and movements of molting male black ducks in Labrador. Journal of Wildlife Management 53:1057–1061. Abstract: We marked 26 flightless male American black ducks (Anas rubripes) with transmitters during the post-nuptial molt in northern Labrador to determine survival and movements. Twelve ducks remained in the watershed where marked and 11 ducks moved to different watersheds. Ducks moved a mean of 0.20 ± 0.04 (SE) km/day during 2-4-day observation intervals. The period survival rate (PSR) for these flightless males was 0.89 using the Kaplan-Meier (product lim estimator) (Kaplan and Meier 1958, Pollock et al. 1989); only 2 ducks were killed by predators. Death of these 2 ducks might have been influenced by our disturbance, thus we considered the PSR minimal. We marked 26 flightless male American black ducks (Anas rubripes) with transmitters during the post-nuptial molt in northern Labrador to determine survival and movements. Twelve ducks remained in the watershed where marked and 11 ducks moved to different watersheds. Ducks moved a mean of 0.20 ± 0.04 (SE) km/day during 2-4-day observation intervals. The period survival rate (PSR) for these flightless males was 0.89 using the Kaplan-Meier (product lim estimator) (Kaplan and Meier 1958, Pollock et al. 1989); only 2 ducks were killed by predators. Death of these 2 ducks might have been influenced by our disturbance, thus we considered the PSR minimal. Bowman, T. D., and P. W. Brown. 1992. Site fidelity of male black ducks to a molting area in Labrador. Journal of Field Ornithology 63:32-34. Boyd, H., and C. Hyslop. 1985. Are hunting losses of young black ducks (Anas rubripes) too high? Pages 182–185 in B. J. T. Morgan and P. M. North, editors. Lecture notes in statistics 29: statistics in ornithology. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany. Boyd, H., and C. Hyslop. 1986. Effects of hunting on survival of American black ducks: a response. Wildlife Society Bulletin 14:328–329. Brand, C. J., and D. E. Docherty. 1984. A survey of North American migratory waterfowl for duck plaque (duck virus enteritis) virus. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 20:261–266. Abstract: A survey of migratory waterfowl for duck plague (DP) virus was conducted in the Mississippi and Central flyways during 1982 and in the Atlantic and Pacific flyways during 1983. Cloacal and pharyngeal swabs were collected from 3,169 migratory waterfowl in these four flyways, principally mallards (Anas platyrhynchos L.), black ducks (Anas rubripes Brewster), and pintails (Anas acuta L.). In addition 1,033 birds were sampled from areas of recurrent DP outbreaks among nonmigratory and captive waterfowl, and 590 from Lake Andes National Wildlife Refuge, the site of the only known major DP outbreak in migratory waterfowl. duck plague virus was not found in any of the samples. Results support the hypothesis that DP is not established in North American migratory waterfowl as an enzootic disease. A survey of migratory waterfowl for duck plague (DP) virus was conducted in the Mississippi and Central flyways during 1982 and in the Atlantic and Pacific flyways during 1983. Cloacal and pharyngeal swabs were collected from 3,169 migratory waterfowl in these four flyways, principally mallards (Anas platyrhynchos L.), black ducks (Anas rubripes Brewster), and pintails (Anas acuta L.). In addition 1,033 birds were sampled from areas of recurrent DP outbreaks among nonmigratory and captive waterfowl, and 590 from Lake Andes National Wildlife Refuge, the site of the only known major DP outbreak in migratory waterfowl. duck plague virus was not found in any of the samples. Results support the hypothesis that DP is not established in North American migratory waterfowl as an enzootic disease. Lasted updated: 7 August 2008. 8 Black Duck Joint Venture ABDU Bibliography, First Edition Brand, C. J., R. M. Windingstag, L. M. Siegfried, R. M. Duncan, and R. M. Cook.. 1988. Avian morbidity and mortality from botulism, aspergillosis, and salmonellosis at Jamaica Bay Wildlife Refuge, New York, USA. Colonial Waterbirds 11:284– 292. Brasher, M. G., J. D. Steckel, and R. J. Gates. 2007. Energetic carrying capacity of actively and passively managed wetlands for migrating ducks in Ohio. Journal of Wildlife Management 71:2532-2541. Abstract: Habitat conservation strategies of the North American Waterfowl Management Plan (NAWMP) are guided by current understanding of factors that limit growth of waterfowl populations. The 1998 implementation plan of the Upper Mississippi River and Great Lakes Region Joint Venture (UMR and GLRJV) assumed that availability of foraging resources during autumn in wetlands actively managed for waterfowl was the primary limiting factor for duck populations during the nonbreeding season. We used multistage sampling during autumn and spring 2001-2004 to estimate energetic carrying capacity (ECC) of actively and passively managed wetlands in Ohio, USA, and examine this assumption. Energetic carrying capacity during autumn was similar between actively and passively managed wetlands each year. Averaged across years, energetic carrying capacity was 3,446 and 2,047 duck energy-days (DED)/ha for actively and passively managed wetlands, respectively. These estimates exceeded the UMR and GLRJV assumption that 1,236 DED/ha were provided by managed wetland habitats. Energetic carrying capacity declined each year by > 80% between autumn and spring migration. Consequently, ECC of actively and passively managed wetlands was low during spring (x= 66-242 DED/ha). These results suggested that duck foraging resources in actively and passively managed wetland habitats are abundant during autumn, but overwinter declines may create foodlimiting environments during spring. Habitat conservation strategies of the North American Waterfowl Management Plan (NAWMP) are guided by current understanding of factors that limit growth of waterfowl populations. The 1998 implementation plan of the Upper Mississippi River and Great Lakes Region Joint Venture (UMR and GLRJV) assumed that availability of foraging resources during autumn in wetlands actively managed for waterfowl was the primary limiting factor for duck populations during the nonbreeding season. We used multistage sampling during autumn and spring 2001-2004 to estimate energetic carrying capacity (ECC) of actively and passively managed wetlands in Ohio, USA, and examine this assumption. Energetic carrying capacity during autumn was similar between actively and passively managed wetlands each year. Averaged across years, energetic carrying capacity was 3,446 and 2,047 duck energy-days (DED)/ha for actively and passively managed wetlands, respectively. These estimates exceeded the UMR and GLRJV assumption that 1,236 DED/ha were provided by managed wetland habitats. Energetic carrying capacity declined each year by > 80% between autumn and spring migration. Consequently, ECC of actively and passively managed wetlands was low during spring (x= 66-242 DED/ha). These results suggested that duck foraging resources in actively and passively managed wetland habitats are abundant during autumn, but overwinter declines may create foodlimiting environments during spring. Brewster, W. 1902. An undescribed form of the black duck (Anas obscura). Auk 19:183–188. Brewster, W. 1909. Something more about black ducks. Auk 26:175–179. Brewster, W. 1910. Resurrection of the red-legged black duck. The Auk 27:323– 333. Brodsky, L. 1983. Behavioral energetics of overwintering black ducks (Anas rubripes). Thesis, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON, Canada. Brodsky, L. M., C. D. Ankney, and D. G. Dennis. 1988. The influence of male dominance on social interactions in black ducks and mallards. Animal Behavior 36:1371–1378. Brodsky, L. M., C. D. Ankney, and D. G. Dennis. 1989. Social experience influences preferences in black ducks and mallards. Canadian Journal of Zoology 67:1434– 1438. Brodsky, L. M., and P. J. Weatherhead. 1984. Behavioral and ecological factors contributing to American black duck-mallard hybridization. Journal of Wildlife Management 48:846–852. Abstract: Investigation of courtship and pair formation of a wintering population of American black ducks (Anas rubripes) and mallards (A. platyrhynchos) near Ottawa, Ontario, indicated that initially drakes of both species exclusively courted and paired intraspecifically. After all female mallards had Investigation of courtship and pair formation of a wintering population of American black ducks (Anas rubripes) and mallards (A. platyrhynchos) near Ottawa, Ontario, indicated that initially drakes of both species exclusively courted and paired intraspecifically. After all female mallards had Lasted updated: 7 August 2008. 9 Black Duck Joint Venture ABDU Bibliography, First Edition paired, the remaining mallard drakes joined black duck courtship groups. Of the 33 unpaired black duck females remaining at this time, only 27% formed intraspecific pairs, whereas 73% selected mallard drakes as mates, despite there being an excess of black duck drakes. Based on these results, a scenario for black duck--mallard hybridization is proposed. It involves ecological factors including the malebiased sex ratio in northern wintering populations, artificial feeding, and roost-site limitation. Other behavioral aspects, such as the earlier pair formation in mallards and the superiority exhibited by mallard drakes when competing for black duck females are discussed. Brodsky, L. M., and P. J. Weatherhead. 1984. Behavioural thermalregulation in wintering black ducks: roosting and resting. Canadian Journal of Zoology 62:1223–1226. Brodsky, L. M., and P. J. Weatherhead. 1985. Diving by wintering black ducks: as assessment of atypical foraging. Wildfowl 36:72–76. Brodsky, L. M., and P.J.Weatherhead. 1985. Time and energy constraints on courtship in wintering American black ducks. Condor 87:33-36. Abstract: Courtship in wintering American Black Ducks (Anas rubripes) was studied at three sites that differed substantially in food supply. Courtship started earlier and occupied more of the ducks' time at the site where food was most nutritious. Ducks at the site with intermediate food quality only began courting after temperatures rose sufficiently to reduce their energetic costs of maintenance. Ducks with the least nutritious food began courting latest and spent the least amount of time in this activity. The seasonal sequence of courtship displays used by the courting ducks was similar between sites. This suggests that ducks with the best food (i.e., those starting courtship first) reached the peak of courtship activity earliest and thus should have been best prepared for breeding in the spring. Consequently, the northern limit to winter ranges in species with early pairing may be determined, in part, by the availability of sufficient food for early courtship. Courtship in wintering American Black Ducks (Anas rubripes) was studied at three sites that differed substantially in food supply. Courtship started earlier and occupied more of the ducks' time at the site where food was most nutritious. Ducks at the site with intermediate food quality only began courting after temperatures rose sufficiently to reduce their energetic costs of maintenance. Ducks with the least nutritious food began courting latest and spent the least amount of time in this activity. The seasonal sequence of courtship displays used by the courting ducks was similar between sites. This suggests that ducks with the best food (i.e., those starting courtship first) reached the peak of courtship activity earliest and thus should have been best prepared for breeding in the spring. Consequently, the northern limit to winter ranges in species with early pairing may be determined, in part, by the availability of sufficient food for early courtship. Brodsky, L. M., and P. J. Weatherhead. 1985. Variability in behavioural response of wintering black ducks to increased energy demands. Canadian Journal of Zoology 63:1657–1662. Brooke, R. K., and J. C. Sinclair. 1976. An American black duck in Burban. Ostrich 47:6768. * Brook, R. W., R. K. Ross, K. F. Abraham, D. L. Fronczak, and J. C. Davies. 20XX. Evidence for black duck winter distributin change and implications for monitoring. Journal of Wildlife Management XX:XXX–XXX * Brylinsky M. 1993. Continued evaluation of controlled fertilization of acidified wetlands for enhancement of waterfowl production. Acadia Center for Estuarine Ressearch Publication No. 34. * Brylinsky, M. 1993. Evaluation of controlled fertilization of acidified and oligotrophic wetlands for enhancement of waterfowl production. Pages 217–234 in Proceedings of the workshop on the Kejimkujik Watershed Studies: Monitoring and Research, five years after ‘Kejimkujik ‘88’. Environment Canada Occasional Report No. 3. Lasted updated: 7 August 2008. 10 Black Duck Joint Venture ABDU Bibliography, First Edition * Brylinsky, M. 1994. Evaluation of controlled fertilization of acidified wetlands for enhancement of waterfowl production. Acadia Center for Estuarine Research Publication No. 28. Acadia University, Wolfville, Nova Scotia, Canada. * Brylinsky, M. 1994. Evaluation of environmental factors responsible for high waterfowl production at the Allain’s Creek Ducks Unlimited impoundment. Acadia Center for Estuarine Ressearch Publication No. 35. Buckelew, A. R., Jr., and G. A. Hall. 1994. The West Virginia breeding bird atlas. University of Pittsburg Press, Pittsburg, PA. * Butcher, G. S. 1990. Populations of black ducks and mallards in winter 1950–1989. Page 22 in P. Kehoe, editor. American black duck symposium. North American Waterfowl Management Plan, New Brunswick, Canada. Abstract: Four decades of Christmas Bird Count data confirm the long term and steep decline of black ducks suggested by the Mid-winter Waterfowl Inventory. This decline has occurred throughout the winter range of the black duck, but is particularly severe in the southern and central parts of the winter range. Mallards have increased in the northeastern parts of the black duck range, but mallards have decreased in the areas where the black duck decline was particularly severe. Mallard densities remain high in areas of severe black duck declines. The results are consistent with black duck/mallard hybridization or loss of habitat as causes of black duck decline; the results are not consistent with winter competition between mallards and black ducks as a cause of black duck decline. Four decades of Christmas Bird Count data confirm the long term and steep decline of black ducks suggested by the Mid-winter Waterfowl Inventory. This decline has occurred throughout the winter range of the black duck, but is particularly severe in the southern and central parts of the winter range. Mallards have increased in the northeastern parts of the black duck range, but mallards have decreased in the areas where the black duck decline was particularly severe. Mallard densities remain high in areas of severe black duck declines. The results are consistent with black duck/mallard hybridization or loss of habitat as causes of black duck decline; the results are not consistent with winter competition between mallards and black ducks as a cause of black duck decline. Byrd, V. E. 1991. Food habits of black duck wintering in west central Tennessee. Master’s thesis, Tennessee Technological University, Cookeville, TN USA. Caithamer, D. F., and L. E. Gregg. 2002. Distribution and recovery rates of ducks in northern Wisconsin, 1960–2000. Internal Report. Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources. Carriere, S., and R. D. Titman. 1998. Habitat use by sympatric mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) and American black duck (Anas rubripes) broods in a forested area of Quebec, Canada. Wildfowl 49:150– 160. Abstract: The authors studied the shared habitat use of mallards and American black ducks on four wetlands in Abitibi, Quebec. Black ducks used scrub-shrub, emergent, and aquatic bed wetlands in 1988, while mallards used only emergent and aquatic bed wetlands. In 1989 both species used available habitats before plants had emerged. After emergence of plants, scrub-shrub was avoided by both species and mallards used aquatic bed wetlands. Mallard use changed from 1988 to 1989, but black duck use did not vary. In 1988 black ducks used forested scrub-shrub wetlands even when availability was low in 1988. Though habitat use overlapped a great deal, the extent of the overlap changed according to water level and habitat availability. The authors studied the shared habitat use of mallards and American black ducks on four wetlands in Abitibi, Quebec. Black ducks used scrub-shrub, emergent, and aquatic bed wetlands in 1988, while mallards used only emergent and aquatic bed wetlands. In 1989 both species used available habitats before plants had emerged. After emergence of plants, scrub-shrub was avoided by both species and mallards used aquatic bed wetlands. Mallard use changed from 1988 to 1989, but black duck use did not vary. In 1988 black ducks used forested scrub-shrub wetlands even when availability was low in 1988. Though habitat use overlapped a great deal, the extent of the overlap changed according to water level and habitat availability. Chasko, G. G., T. R. Hoehn, and P. Howell-Heller. 1984. Toxicity of lead shot to wild black ducks and mallards fed natural foods. Bulletin of Environmental Contaminants and Toxicology 32:417–428. Lasted updated: 7 August 2008. 11 Black Duck Joint Venture ABDU Bibliography, First Edition Chaulk, K. G., and B. Turner. 2007. The timing of waterfowl arrival and dispersion during spring migration in Labrador. Northeastern Naturalist 375:386. Abstract: Weekly aerial surveys were conducted in central Labrador during the spring staging period (27 April to 29 May, 2000), and the relative abundance of waterfowl was documented. Anas rubripes (American black duck) and Bucephala clangula (Common Goldeneye) were among the first species to arrive, while peak waterfowl diversity occurred on the latest survey date. Overall, Branta canadensis (Canada Geese) were the most abundant species, followed by American black duck and Anas crecca (Green-winged Teal). As expected, the relative abundance of these species varied by date and region. By the time of the last survey on 29 May, average flock size had decreased for most species, most likely corresponding with the start of breeding and nest initiation. Our findings could be useful as baseline information for future studies of climate change, may have implications for the management of the aboriginal spring hunt, and also might be used to mitigate the effects of military flying activity. Weekly aerial surveys were conducted in central Labrador during the spring staging period (27 April to 29 May, 2000), and the relative abundance of waterfowl was documented. Anas rubripes (American black duck) and Bucephala clangula (Common Goldeneye) were among the first species to arrive, while peak waterfowl diversity occurred on the latest survey date. Overall, Branta canadensis (Canada Geese) were the most abundant species, followed by American black duck and Anas crecca (Green-winged Teal). As expected, the relative abundance of these species varied by date and region. By the time of the last survey on 29 May, average flock size had decreased for most species, most likely corresponding with the start of breeding and nest initiation. Our findings could be useful as baseline information for future studies of climate change, may have implications for the management of the aboriginal spring hunt, and also might be used to mitigate the effects of military flying activity. Chipley, W. H. 1995. Habitat use, daily movements, and survival of female American black ducks wintering in west-central Tennessee. Thesis. Unviersity of Georgia, Athens, GA USA. Clark, G. M., and V. D. Stotts. 1960. Skin lesions on black ducks and mallards caused by chigger (Womersia strandtmani Wharton 1947). Journal of Wildlife Management 24:106–108. Clark, W. S. 1996. Habitat differences between mallards and American black ducks wintering in Tennessee. Thesis, Tennessee Technological University, Cookeville, TN, USA. * Clugston, D. A., J. R. Longcore, D. G. McAuley, and P. Dupuis. 1994. Habitat use and movements of post-fledging American black ducks (Anas rubripes) in the St. Lawrence estuary, Quebec. Canadian Journal of Zoology 72:2100-2104. Collins, J. M. 1974. The relative abundance of ducks breeding in southern Ontario in 1951 and 1971. Pages 32–44 in H. Boyd, editor. Canadian Wildlife Service waterfowl studies in eastern Canada, 1969–1973. Canadian Wildlife Service Report Series 29. Conomy, J. T. 1993. Habitat use by, and effects of aircraft noise on the behavior and energetics of wintering dabbling ducks in piney and cedar islands, North Carolina. Thesis, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA. Conomy, J. T., J. A. Collazo, J. A. Dubovsky, and W. J. Fleming. 1998. Dabbling duck behavior and aircraft activity in coastal. Journal of Wildlife Management 62:1127–1134. Abstract: Examines the behavioral responses of wintering American black ducks, American wigeon, gadwall and American green-winged teal to low-level flying military aircrafts at Piney and Cedar islands in North Carolina in 1991 and 1992. Methodology; Aircraft sound level used in the study; Discussion on the results of the study. Examines the behavioral responses of wintering American black ducks, American wigeon, gadwall and American green-winged teal to low-level flying military aircrafts at Piney and Cedar islands in North Carolina in 1991 and 1992. Methodology; Aircraft sound level used in the study; Discussion on the results of the study. Conomy, J., J. A. Dubovsky, J. A. Collazo, and W. J. Fleming. 1998. Do black ducks and wood ducks habituate to aircraft disturbance? Journal of Wildlife Management Lasted updated: 7 August 2008. 12 Black Duck Joint Venture ABDU Bibliography, First Edition